Literature Reviews

doi: 10.25005/2074-0581-2018-20-2-3-190-196
EPIDEMIOLOGY, RISK FACTORS AND DIAGNOSIS OF CHRONIC RENAL FAILURE

M.K. Gulov1, Kh.K. Rafiev2, S.M. Abdulloev2

1Department of General Surgery № 1, Avicenna Tajik State Medical University, Dushanbe, Republic of Tajikistan
2Department of Epidemiology, Avicenna Tajik State Medical University, Dushanbe, Republic of Tajikistan

Objective: Analysis of the literature shows that the number of patients with chronic renal failure (CRF) increases every year. To date known more than twenty renal diseases, the end of clinical manifestation of which is CRF. Studies of recent years show that in CRF genesis and progression leading role plays arterial hypertension, smoking, age, male sex, dyslipidemia, diabetes mellitus, some autoimmune diseases, metabolic disorders of calcium and phosphorus, the use of nephrotoxic drugs, the effects of psycho-emotional and oxidative stress, malfunction of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, etc. At the present stage, for diagnosis of violations of the glomerular filtration rate, ordered ten, most important of them - Cystatin C method. Another non-invasive method is doppler ultrasound. In spite of this, the issues of early diagnosis of chronic kidney disease remain to the end not studied and not solved, which requires the development of new working algorithms.

Keywords: Chronic renal failure, epidemiology, glomerular filtration rate, cystatin C, outcomes.

Download file:


References
  1. Razdolkina TI, Soldatov OM, Balykova LA, Nezhdanova MV, Moskovskaya EF, Dzyubich LI. Epidemiologiya i etiologicheskaya struktura khronicheskoy pochechnoy nedostatochnosti u detey v Mordovii [Epidemiology and etiological structure of chronic renal failure in children in Mordovia]. Destkaya bol'nitsa. 2012;2:8-12.
  2. Barskova EG, Ginyatullina LR. Mediko-sotsial'naya ekspertiza u patsientov s khronicheskoy pochechnoy nedostatochnost'yu [Medico-social examination in patients with chronic renal failure]. Vestnik sovremennoy klinicheskoy meditsiny. 2012;5(3):26-8.
  3. Lin MY, Chiu YW, Lee CH, Yu HY, Chen HC, Wu MT, et al. Factors associated with CKD in the elderly and nonelderly population. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2013;8(1):33-40.
  4. Stel VS, Kramer A, Zoccali C, Jager KJ. The 2006 ERA-EDTA Registry annual Report: a précis. J Nephrol. 2009;22(1):1-12.
  5. Bikbov BT, Tomilina NA. Sostoyanie zamestitel'noy terapii bol'nykh s khronicheskoy pochechnoy nedostatochnost'yu v Rossiyskoy Federatsii v 1998-2007 gg. (otchyot po dannym Rossiyskogo registra zamestitel'noy terapii) [The state of substitution treatment of patients with chronic renal insufficiency in the Russian Federation in 1998-2007 (a report on the data of the Russian register of substitution therapy)]. Nefrologiya i dializ. 2009;11(3):5-20.
  6. Georgianos PI, Agarwal R. Blood pressure and mortality in long-term hemodialysis – time to move forward. Am J Hypertens. 2017;30(3):211-22. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ajh/hpw114.
  7. O’Seaghdha CM, Lyass A, Massaro JM, Meigs JB, Coresh J, D'Agostino RBSr, et al. A risk score for chronic kidney disease in the general population. Am J Med. 2012;125(3):270-7. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.amjmed.2011.09.009.
  8. Wan EYF, Fong DYT, Fung CSC, Yu YET, Chin WY, Chan AKC, et al. Prediction of new onset of end stage renal disease in Chinese patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus – a population-based retrospective cohort study. BMC Nephrol. 2017;18(1):257. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12882-017-0671-x.
  9. Bikbov BT, Tomilina NA. Rannee vyyavlenie khronicheskoy bolezni pochek: markyor preemstvennosti v lechenii patsientov, vliyanie na vyzhivaemost' i kardiovaskulyarnuyu letal'nost' bol'nykh na dialize [Early detection of chronic kidney disease: a marker of continuity in the treatment of patients, the impact on survival and cardiovascular mortality of patients on dialysis]. Rossiyskiy meditsinskiy zhurnal. 2014;1:12-7.
  10. Yeh YC, Huang MF, Hwang SJ, Tsai JC, Liu TL, Hsiao SM, et al. Association of homocysteine level and vascular burden and cognitive function in middle-aged and older adults with chronic kidney disease. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2016;31(7):723-30. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/gps.4383.
  11. Bello A, Thompson S, Lloyd A, Hemmelgam B, Klarenbach S, Manns B, et al. Kidney Disease Network. Am J Kidney Dis. 2012;59(3):364-71. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/j.ajkd.2011.09.006.
  12. Ricardo AC, Anderson CA, Yang W, Zhang X, Fischer MJ, Dember LM, et al. Healthy lifestyle and risk of kidney disease progression, atherosclerotic events, and death in CKD: findings from the Chronic Renal Insufficiency Cohort (CRIC) Study. Am J Kidney Dis. 2015;65(3):412-24.
  13. Chandra D, Stamm JA, Palevsky PM, Leader JK, Fuhrman CR, Zhang Y, et al. The relationship between pulmonary emphysema and kidney function in smokers. Chest. 2012;142(3):655-62. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1378/chest.11-1456.
  14. Lee MH, Ahn SV, Hur NW, Choi DP, Kim HC, Suh I. Gender differences in the association between smoking and dyslipidemia: 2005 Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Clin Chim Acta. 2011;412(17-18):1600-5. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cca.2011.05.013.
  15. Khubutiya MSh, Ismoilov SS, Gulov MK, Gulshanova SF. Profilaktika tromboobrazovaniya levykh pochechnykh ven pri transplantatsii ot zhivogo donora [Prevention of thrombus formation of the left renal veins during transplantation from a living donor]. Vestnik Avitsenny [Avicenna Bulletin]. 2016;4:17-23
  16. Gamboa JL, Billings FT 4th, Bojanowski MT, Gilliam LA, Yu C, Roshanravan B, et al. Mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress in patients with chronic kidney disease. Physiol Rep. 2016;4(9):e12780. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.14814/phy2.12780
  17. Csonka C, Sárközy M, Pipicz M, Duv L, Csont T. Modulation of hypercholesterolemia-induced oxidative/nitrative stress in the heart. Oxid Med Cell Longev. 2016;2016:3863726. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2016/3863726.
  18. Vaziri ND, Norris K. Lipid disorders and their relevance to outcomes in chronic kidney disease. Blood Purif. 2011;31(1-3):189-96. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000321845.
  19. Saland JM, Satlin LM, Zalsos-Johnson J, Cremers S, Ginsberg HN. Impaired postprandial lipemic response in chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int. 2016;90(1):172-80. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.kint.2016.02.031.
  20. Khubutiya MSh, Gulov MK, Ismoilov SS, Gulshanova SF, Saymukhiddinov MM. Prognosticheskie faktory riska razvitiya rannikh disfunktsiy transplantata posle rodstvennoy peresadki pochki [Prognostic risk factors of early transplant dysfunction after relative kidney transplantation]. Zdravookhranenie Tadzhikistana. 2016;4:51-9.
  21. Vaziri ND. Lipotoxicity and impaired high density lipoprotein-mediated reverse cholesterol transport in chronic kidney disease. J Ren Nutr. 2010;20(5 Suppl):S35-43. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/j.jrn.2010.05.010.
  22. Mae SI, Shono A, Shiota F, Yasuno T, Kajiwara M, Gotoda-Nishimura N, et al. Monitoring and robust induction of nephrogenic intermediate mesoderm from human pluripotent stem cells. Nat Commun. 2013;4:1367. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ncomms2378.
  23. Rabelink TJ, Little MH. Stromal cells in tissue homeostasis: balancing regeneration and fibrosis. Nat Rev Nephrol. 2013;9(12):747-53. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrneph.2013.152
  24. Nakagawa S, Nishihara K, Miyata H, Shinke H, Tomita E, Kajiwara M, et al. Molecular markers of tubulointerstitial fibrosis and tubular cell damage in patients with CKD. PLoS One. 2015;10(8):e0136994. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0136994.
  25. Zeisberg M, Neilson EG. Mechanisms of tubulointerstitial fibrosis. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2010;21(11):1819-34. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1681/ASN.2010080793.
  26. Humphreys BD. Mechanisms of renal fibrosis. Annu Rev Physiol. 2018;80:309-26. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-physiol-022516-034227.
  27. Liu Y. Cellular and molecular mechanisms of renal fibrosis. Nat Rev Nephrol. 2011;7(12):684-96. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrneph.2011.149.
  28. Lasagni L, Angelotti ML, Ronconi E, Lombardi D, Nardi S, Peired A, et al. Podocyte regeneration driven by renal progenitors determines glomerular disease remission and can be pharmacologically enhanced. Stem Cell Reports. 2015;5(2):248-63. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.stemcr.2015.07.003.
  29. Smirnov AV, Shilov EM, Dobronravov VA, Kayukov IG, Bobkova IN, Shvecov MYu, i dr. Natsional'nye rekomendatsii. Khronicheskaya bolezn' pochek: osnovnye printsipy skrininga, diagnostiki, profilaktiki i podkody k lecheniyu [National recommendations. Chronic renal disease: basic principles of screening, diagnosis, prophylaxis and approaches to treatment]. Nefrologiya. 2012;16(1):89-115.
  30. Biliak VR, Aakre KM, Yucel D, Bargnoux AS, Cristol JP, Piéroni L. A Pathway to National Guidelines for Laboratory Diagnostics of Chronic Kidney Disease – Examples from Diverse European Countries. EJIFCC. 2017;28(4):289-301.
  31. Razumov VV. Azotemicheskoe raspyatie meditsiny i dezorganizatsiya pochechnykh funktsiy kak funktsional'naya rekapitulyatsiya [Azotemical crucifixion of medicine and disorganization of renal functions as functional recapitulation]. Novokuznetsk, RF: OOO «Poligrafist»; 2016. 306 p.
  32. McMeekin H, Wickham F, Barnfield M, Burniston M. A systematic review of single-sample glomerular filtration rate measurement techniques and demonstration of equal accuracy to slope-intercept methods. Nucl Med Commun. 2016;37(7):743-55. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/MNM.0000000000000448.
  33. Murray AW, Barnfield MC, Waller ML, Telford T, Peters AM. Assessment of glomerular filtration rate measurement with plasma sampling: a technical review. J Nucl Med Technol. 2013;41(2):67-75. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.2967/jnmt.113.121004.
  34. McMeekin H, Wickham F, Barnfield M, Burniston M. Effectiveness of quality control methods for glomerular filtration rate calculation. Nucl Med Commun. 2016;37(7):756-66. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/MNM.0000000000000520
  35. Mukhin NA. Nefrologiya: natsional’noe rukovodstvo [Nephrology: National guideline]. Moskow, RF: GEOTAR-Media; 2009. 720 p.
  36. Levey AS, Inker LA, Coresh J. GFR estimation: from physiology to public health. Am J Kidney Dis. 2014;63(5):820-34. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/j.ajkd.2013.12.006.
  37. Kalantari K, Bolton WK. A good reason to measure 24-hour urine creatinine excretion, but not to assess kidney function. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2013;8(11):1847-9. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.2215/CJN.09770913.
  38. da Silva RP, Nissim I, Brosnan ME, brosnan JT. Creatine synthesis: hepatic metabolism of guanidinoacetate and creatine in the rat in vitro and in vivo. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2009;296(2):E256-61. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.90547.2008.
  39. Earley A, Miskulin D, Lamb EJ, Levey AS, Uhlig K. Estimating equations for glomerular filtration rate in the era of creatinine standardization: a systematic review. Ann Intern Med. 2012;156(11):785-95. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-156-6-201203200-00391.
  40. Kayukov IG, Smirnov AV, Emanuel VL. Tsistatin C v sovremennoy meditsine [Cystatin C in modern medicine]. Nefrologiya. 2012;16(1):22-39.
  41. Stevens LA, Coresh J, Schmid CH, Feldman HI, Froissart M, Kusek J, et al. Estimating GFR using serum cystatin C alone and in combination with serum creatinine: a pooled analysis of 3418 individuals with CKD. Am J Kidney Dis. 2008;51(3):395-406. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/j.ajkd.2007.11.018.
  42. Ferguson MA, Waikar SS. Established and emerging markers of kidney function. Clin Chem. 2012;58(4):680-9. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1373/clinchem.2011.167494.
  43. Ye X, Wei L, Pei X, Zhu B, wu J, Zhao W. Application of creatinine – and/or cystatin C-based glomerular filtration rate estimation equations in elderly Chinese. Clin Interv Aging. 2014;9:1539-49. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/CIA.S68801.
  44. Shlipak MG, Matsushita K, Ärnlöv J, Inker LA, Katz R, Polkinghorne KR, et al. Cystatin C versus creatinine in determining risk based on kidney function. N Engl J Med. 2013;369(10):932-43. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1214234.
  45. Qamar A, Hayat A, Ahmad TM, Kahn A, Hasnat MNU, Tahir S. Serum cystatin C as an early diagnostic biomarker of diabetic kidney disease in type 2 diabetic patients. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak. 2018;28(4):288-91. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.29271/jcpsp.2018.04.288.
  46. Jung YJ, Lee HR, Kwon OJ. Comparison of serum cystatin C and creatinine as a marker for early detection of decreasing glomerular filtration rate in renal transplants. J Korean Surg Soc. 2012;83(2):69-74. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.4174/jkss.2012.83.2.69.
  47. Choe JY, Park SH, Kim SK. Serum cystatin C is a potential endogenous marker for the estimation of renal function in male gout patients with renalimpairment. J Korean Med Sci. 2010;25(1):42-8. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.3346/jkms.2010.25.1.42.
  48. Batyushin MM, Pasechnik DG. Proteinuriya: voprosy differentsial'noy diagnostiki [Proteinuria: issues of differential diagnosis]. Consilium Medicum. 2013;15(7):48-56.
  49. Iimori S, Naito S, Noda Y, Sato H, Nomura N, Sohara E, et al. Prognosis of chronic kidney disease with normal-range proteinuria: The CKD-ROUTE study. PLoS ONE. 2018;13(1):e0190493. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0190493.
  50. Viswanathan G, Upadhyay A. Assessment of proteinuria. Adv Chronic Kidney Dis. 2011;18(4):243-8. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/j.ackd.2011.03.002.
  51. Deo R, Khodneva YA, Shlipak MG, Soliman EZ, Judd SE, McClellan WM, et al. Albuminuria, kidney function and sudden cardiac death: findings from the Reasons for Geographic and Racial Differences in Stroke (REGARDS) Study. Heart Rhythm. 2017;14(1):65-71. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.hrthm.2016.08.004.
  52. Ponte B, Pruijm M, Ackermann D, Vuistiner P, Eisenberger U, Guessous I, et al. Reference values and factors associated with renal resistive index in a family-based population study. Hypertension. 2014;63(1):136-42. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.113.02321.
  53. Lubas A, Wojtecka A, Smoszna J, Koziński P, Frankowska E, Niemczyk S. Hemodynamic characteristics and the occurrence of renal biopsy-related arteriovenous fistulas in native kidneys. Int Urol Nephrol. 2016;48(10):1667-73. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11255-016-1411-z.
  54. Di Nicolò Р, Cranata A. Renal resistive index: not only kidney. Clin Exp Nephrol. 2017;21(3):359-66. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10157-016-1323-3.
  55. Le Dorze M, Bouglé A, Deruddre S, Duranteau J. Renal Doppler ultrasound: a new tool to assess renal perfusion in critical illness. Shock. 2012;37(4):360-5. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/SHK.0b013e3182467156.

Authors' information:


Gulov Mahmadshoh Kurbonalievich,
Doctor of Medical Sciences, Full Professor, Professor of the Department of General Surgery № 1, Avicenna TSMU

Rafiev Khamdam Kutfiddinovich,
Doctor of Medical Sciences, Full Professor, Professor of the Department of Epidemiology, Avicenna TSMU

Abdulloev Saidkhodzha Murtazoevich,
Competitor of the Department of Epidemiology, Avicenna TSMU

Conflicts of interest: No conflict

Address for correspondence:


Abdulloev Saidkhodzha Murtazoevich

Competitor of the Department of Epidemiology, Avicenna TSMU

734003, Republic of Tajikistan, Dushanbe, Rudaki Ave., 139

Tel.: (+992) 44 6003673

E-mail: saidxoja@gmail.com